Remote Sensing Cheat Sheet

mass balance, the difference between accumulation and ablation (melting and sublimation).

Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low-elevation region of the glacier. Since higher elevations are cooler, the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation, thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium. However, if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative, it is in disequilibrium with the climate and will melt away without a colder climate and or an increase in frozen precipitation.

Carbon Cycle:

- carbon sinks: soil, ocean, fossil fuels

- from AP enviro textbook: Amount of carbon in different sites (in gigatons): atmosphere (750); terrestrial vegetation (610); soils (1580); marine organisms (3); Ocean (39720); sediments on the ocean floor (1500); fossil fuels (3300) not part of the carbon cycle;



Causes of Global Warming

Percentage causes - Within US: Aviation – 3.5% currently, may rise to 15% by 2050,Commercial power generation: 40%, Internal combustion engines in autos and light trucks – 33%, Emissions from buildings: 12% (heating)

Burning coal emits 1.7 times as much CO2 as natural gas, 1.25 times that of oil per unit energy

US consumes 20.4 mil barrels oil per day

Deforestation responsible for 20-25% of all carbon emissions entering atmosphere due to both burning and processing of lumber as well as loss of carbon sink.

Permafrost holds 14% carbon, being destabilized due to development

By 1982 tundra had become net emitter of CO2 due to melt (50 billion tonnes)

France: 80% nuke energy

1850: CO2 280 ppm modern: 385 ppm, 0.75 C increase in average surface temp over last 100 years

Atmospheric aerosols influence climate in two main ways, direct forcing and indirect forcing. In the direct forcing, aerosols reflect sunlight back to space, thus cooling the planet. (leading to a local atmospheric heating which may alter stability and convection patterns.) Pollution of this sort over the eastern section of the United States reduced the annual crop growing season by one week. The indirect effect involves aerosol particles acting as (additional) cloud condensation nuclei, spreading the cloud's liquid water over more, smaller, droplets. clouds more reflective, and longer lasting. formation of a cloud droplet requires two things - an excess of water vapour (supersaturation), and a seed or "condensation nucleus".

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Sulfate aerosol reflects out, black soot absorbs

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Feedback Mechanisms:

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">solar variation, water vapour feedback, clouds feedback (from ground and from space), more radiation, ice-albedo, artic ice methane release, deep-sea methane release (methane caltrate), ocean sequestration

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">If albedo decreases, would cause glaciers to melt, increasing ocean’s surface area, accelerate warming trend (positive feedback) OR

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">If albedo decreases, snowfall could increase in the poles, increasing albedo at poles, causing the poles to cool down, reversing process of global warming (negative feedback)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Consequences of Global Warming

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">rising sea levels, erratic weather conditions due to rising temperatures encouraging weird weather patterns, loss of ocean currents causing extreme weather differences (temp in New England will go down), increased range for potent insects will lead to greater spread of tropical disease, coral bleaching and disintegration, ocean acidity, decrease in snowcaps + polar ice, shifting of agricultural zones, rising temp (duh!), species shift towards poles or wiped out, desertification

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Global Warming Terms

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">radiative balance of the atmosphere <p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">changes in:
 * 1) water vapor, which contributes 36–70%
 * 2) carbon dioxide, which contributes 9–26% 387 ppm from 280ppm pre-industrial era
 * 3) methane, which contributes 4–9%
 * 4) ozone, which contributes 3–7%
 * 5) CFC's other

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">surface temperature -approx 0.75 C increase over last 100 yrs

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">sea ice distribution -10:1 Antarctica: Arctic - Arctic 3.1mil km^2

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">volume of land ice - 20% to 40% loss in ice thickness

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">plant growth - agricultural zones are shifting north and localizing due to severe weather and extreme weather fluctuations

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Satellite Imagery

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">passive vs. active

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">POES - Polar Operational Environmental Satellite (sun-synchronous)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) Bands

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;direction:ltr;line-height:normal;">sun-synchronous, near-polar orbits

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Band Wavelength Range (μm)  Spatial Resolution  Application

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1       0.58 - 0.68 (red)                  1.1 km         cloud, snow, and ice monitoring

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">2       0.725 - 1.1 (near IR)            1.1 km          water, vegetation, and agriculture surveys

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">3       3.55 -3.93 (mid IR)              1.1 km           sea surface temperature, volcanoes, and forest fire activity

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">4       10.3 - 11.3 (thermal IR)        1.1 km           sea surface temperature, soil moisture

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">5       11.5 - 12.5 (thermal IR)        1.1 km           sea surface temperature, soil moisture

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">GOES - Geostationary Operational Environmental Satelite (10-13)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">The Imager is a multichannel instrument that senses infrared radiant energy and visible reflected solar energy from the earth's surface and atmosphere. The Sounder provides data for vertical atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles, surface and cloud top temperature, and ozone distribution. The 19 channel sounder measures emitted radiation in 18 thermal infrared bands and reflected radiation in one visible band. These data have a spatial resolution of 8 km and 13-bit radiometric resolution.sounder measures emitted radiation in 18 thermal infrared bands and reflected radiation in one visible band. These data have a spatial resolution of 8 km and 13-bit radiometric resolution.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Other instruments on board the spacecraft are the ground-based meteorological platform data collection and relay, and the space environment monitor. The latter consists of a magnetometer, an X-ray sensor, a high energy proton and alpha detector, and an energetic particles sensor, all used for in-situ surveying of the near-earth space environment. Satellites numbered 12 and greater also carry a solar imager, although none of these imagers is currently active.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Band Wavelength Range (>μm)   Spatial Resolution     Application

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1 0.52 - 0.72 (visible)  1 km  cloud, pollution, and haze detection; severe storm identification

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">2 3.78 - 4.03 (shortwave IR)  4 km  identification of fog at night; discriminating water clouds and snow or ice clouds during daytime; detecting fires and volcanoes; night time determination of sea surface temperatures

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">3 6.47 - 7.02 (upper water vapour) 4 km  estimating regions of mid-level moisture content and advection; tracking mid-level atmospheric motion

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">4 10.2 - 11.2(longwave IR) 4 km  identifying cloud-drift winds, severe storms, and heavy rainfall

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">5 11.5 - 12.5(IR, water vapour) 4 km  identification of low-level moisture; determination of sea surface temperature; detection of airborne dust and volcanic ash

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Landsat 7: eight spectral bands with spatial resolutions ranging from 15 to 60 meters.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">The various Landsats have had Multispectral Scanners (MSS)(oscilating mirror bounces to six recievers, then moves forward), Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) (superfast but on 1-3 only) scanners, and Thematic Mapper (TM) (4,5, and ETM+ on 7, albedo + ice) scanners. Each type has its own spectral range and spatial resolution.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">SLC (oscilator) for MSS on 7 has failed, uncorrected.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Band Wavelength Spectral Response Application

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1 0.45-0.52 µm Blue-Green  coastal water mapping, soil/vegetation discrimination, forest classification, man-made feature identification

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">2 0.52-0.60 µm Green  vegetation discrimination and health monitoring, man-made feature identification

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">3 0.63-0.69 µm Red  plant species identification, man-made feature identification

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">4 0.76-0.90 µm Near IR  soil moisture monitoring, vegetation monitoring, water body discrimination

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">5 1.55-1.75 µm Mid-IR  vegetation moisture content monitoring

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">6 10.40-12.50 µm Thermal IR  surface temperature, vegetation stress monitoring, soil moisture monitoring, cloud differentiation, volcanic monitoring

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">7 2.08-2.35 µm Mid-IR  mineral and rock discrimination, vegetation moisture content

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Landsat 7 images are color composites, made by assigning the three primary colors to three bands of the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) sensor. These images are not color photographs, they are "false color" images

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">RGB = NRG (Red, Green, Blue = Near Infrared, Red, Green, or "energy")

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Red = Near IR (ETM+ band 4) Green = Red (ETM+ band 3)  Blue = Green (ETM+ band 2)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">vegetation appear三 as shades of red, because vegetation reflects a lot of near infrared light. The brighter the red, the healthier the vegetation. Soils with little or no vegetation will range from white (for sand) to greens and browns, depending on moisture and organic matter content. Water will range from blue to black. Clear, deep water is dark, and sediment-laden or shallow water appears lighter. Urban areas look blue-gray. Clouds and snow are both white.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Système Pour l'Observation de la Terre (SPOT) - France, microwave, panchromatic (PLA),

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">multispectral (MLA), pointable sensors

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">RADARSAT carries an advanced C-band (5.6 cm), HH-polarized SAR with a

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">steerable radar beam allowing various imaging options over a 500 km range.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">DMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellite Program) (0.5 hr imagery)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Sensor Systems: Passive

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Radiometer - An instrument that quantitatively measures the intensity of electromagnetic radiation in some band of wavelengths in the spectrum. Usually a radiometer is further identified by the portion of the spectrum it covers; for example, visible, infrared, or microwave.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Spectrometer - A device designed to detect, measure, and analyze the spectral content of the incident electromagnetic radiation is called a spectrometer. Conventional, imaging spectrometers use gratings or prisms to disperse the radiation for spectral discrimination.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Spectroradiometer - A radiometer that can measure the intensity of radiation in multiple wavelength bands (i.e., multispectral). Oftentimes the bands are of a high spectral resolution—designed for the remote sensing of specific parameters such as sea surface temperature, cloud characteristics, ocean color, vegetation, trace chemical species in the atmosphere, etc.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Active:

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) - A radar uses a transmitter operating at either radio or microwave frequencies to emit electromagnetic radiation and a directional antenna or receiver to measure the time of arrival of reflected or backscattred pulses of radiation from distant objects. Distance to the object can be determined since electromagnetic radiation propagates at the speed of light.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Ka, K, and Ku bands: very short wavelengths in early airborne radar systems, uncommon today.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">X-band: used extensively on airborne systems for military reconnaissance and terrain mapping.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">C-band: common on many airborne research systems (CCRS Convair-580 and NASA AirSAR) and spaceborne systems (includingC-band: common on many airborne research systems (CCRS Convair-580 and NASA AirSAR) and spaceborne systems (including ERS-1 and 2 and RADARSAT). ERS-1 and 2 and RADARSAT).

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Scatterometer - A scatterometer is a high frequency microwave radar designed specifically to measure backscattered radiation. Over ocean surfaces, measurements of backscattered radiation in the microwave spectral region can be used to derive maps of surface wind speed and direction.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) - A lidar uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object is determined by recording the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of light to calculate the distance traveled. Lidars can determine atmospheric profiles of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Laser Altimeter - A laser altimeter uses a lidar (see above) to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth's surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">foreshortening - the slope (A to B) will appear compressed and the length of the slope will be represented incorrectly, slope looks like 0.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Layover occurs when the radar beam reaches the top of a tall feature (B) before it reaches the base (A). occurs when the radar beam reaches the top of a tall feature (B) before it reaches the base (A).

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">The Instant Field of View is the angular cone of visibility

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">HH best for crops

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">volumne scattering inside crops if penetrates surface layer, random

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">speckle: noise

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">antenna pattern: stronger signal in middle of image than at edges

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">relative calibration for known signal deviations, absolute tests known transponders

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Interferometric systems use two antennas, separated in the range dimension by a small

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">distance, both recording the returns from each resolution cell. Use the phase difference to calculate 3-D image to accuracy of wavelength

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">single polarized - HH or VV (or possibly HV or VH)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">dual polarized - HH and HV, VV and VH, or HH and VV

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">alternating polarization - HH and HV, alternating with VV and VH

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">polarimetric - HH, VV, HV, and VH

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">radiometric (detecting low amts of EM energy) measurements of temp, gases, land color, sea ice

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">altimetric (An instrument for determining elevation) measurements of land, ice, sea level

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">advanced dual-band radar altimeters measure height from a spacecraft. coupled with orbital elements (possibly augmented by GPS), enables determination of the terrain. The two different wavelengths of radio waves used permit the altimeter to automatically correct for varying delays in the ionosphere. superb tools for mapping ocean-surface topography, the hills and valleys of the sea surface. send a microwave pulse to the ocean’s surface and time how long it takes to return. A microwave radiometer corrects any delay that may be caused by water vapor in the atmosphere, the influence of electrons in the ionosphere and the dry air mass of the atmosphere. Combining these data with the precise location of the spacecraft makes it possible to determine sea-surface height to within a few centimetres (about one inch). The strength and shape of the returning signal also provides information on wind speed and the height of ocean waves. These data are used in ocean models to calculate the speed and direction of ocean currents and the amount and location of heat stored in the ocean, which, in turn, reveals global climate variations.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Fiducial marks: small registration marks on the edges of photos. The distance between fiducial marks measured when calibrated, used by cartographers when compiling a topographic map.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">albedo stats

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">fresh snow 0.8-0.9, old snow 0.4-0.8, ice 0.4-0.3, water 0.08, dry sand 0.4, wet sand 0.2-0.3, dry soil 0.2-0.35, soil/forest 0.05-0.15, savanna 0.15+, desert 0.3, meadows 0.1-0.2, crops 0.15-0.25, sumulus stratus 0.06-0.08, stratus 0.04-0.06, altostratus cirrus 0.4-0.6, Asphalt 0.04-0.12; Bare soil 0.17; Conifer forest (summer) 0.08; Green grass 0.25; New Concrete 0.55,

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">avg of earth - 0.3, ocean gets boost b/c clouds

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">insolation: K=(S+D) where S = direct radiation, D = diffuse radiation

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">reflection: K=a(S+D) where a=albedo

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">net shortwave radiation = insolation-reflection = (S+D)(1-a), positive in day, 0 at night

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">energy absorbed at the surface is radiated as terrestrial longwave radiation (Lup), radiation then retained by atmospheric gas in greenhouse effect called longwave atmospheric counter-radiation (Ldown) - net radiation = ((S+D)(1-a)) + Ldown - Lup

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Radiative balance of the atmosphere:

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- accounts for all energy entering earth from the sun and leaving earth as heat

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- in long term, incoming energy should be equal to energy exiting, but in short term energy is unevenly distributed

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- shortwave radiation is the energy from the sun that penetrates space and the earth’s atmosphere

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- atmosphere reflects about 30% of entering radiation, absorbs 20%

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- Direct solar radiation: radiation that penetrates the atmosphere unaffected

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- Diffuse radiation: radiation that is scattered by gases in the atmosphere, making the beam of radiation scatter into many different beams in different directions

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- albedo: amount of light that is reflected by the surface (scale of 0-1 or written as a percentage), low albedo means lots of absorption, high albedo means lots of reflection

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- sometimes, albedo of a surface affected by angle of sun

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">About 30% of the available solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere is reflected or scattered back to space by particulates and clouds before it reaches the ground. The gases of the atmosphere are relatively poor absorbers of solar radiation, absorbing only about 20% of what is available at the outer edge of the atmosphere. The remaining solar radiation makes its way to surface as direct and diffuse solar radiation. Direct solar radiation (S) is shortwave radiation able to penetrate through the atmosphere without having been affected by constituents of the atmosphere in any way. Diffuse radiation (D) is shortwave radiation that has been scattered by gases in the atmosphere. Scattering is a process whereby a beam of radiation is broken down into many weaker rays redirected in other directions. Together, direct and diffuse shortwave radiation accounts for the total incoming solar radiation or insolation (K↓). In equation form:

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">K↓ = S+D

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Day => K is positive, Night => K is zero

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Rayleigh scattering - wavelength > particles. shorter wavelengths much strongly scattered, responsibly for blue color of sky during day b/c blue light from sun scattered into eye (directly at sun = red+yellow b/c unscattered), turns red during sunset+sunrise b/c more complete scattering of blue b/c of long tangent path. particles usually molecular

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Mie scattering - wavelength ~= particles. scattered by dust, pollen smoke.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Nonselective scattering - wavelength < particles. about all scattered equally

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">absorption - energy is outright absorbed. Ozone - UV, CO2 - Far infrared, water vapor - short microwave + long infrared.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Atmospheric windows = wavelengths most effective for remote sensing due to lowest absorption/scattering. Visible corresponds to peak in energy from sun + earth as well as transmittance

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Interpretation:

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Visible images represent the amount of sunlight being scattered back into space by the clouds, aerosols, atmospheric gases, and the Earth's surface. Thicker clouds have a higher reflectivity (or albedo) and appear brighter than thinner clouds on a visible image. However, it is difficult to distinguish among low, middle, and high level clouds in a visible satellite image, since they can all have a similar albedo and for this distinction, infrared satellite images are useful.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Infrared satellite measurements are related to the brightness temperature. Since temperature in the troposphere decreases with height, high level clouds are colder than low level clouds. Therefore, low clouds appear darker on an infrared image and higher clouds appear brighter. The very dark shades of gray indicate regions where the ground is being heated by the sun.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Water Vapour: Darker colors indicate drier air while the brighter the shade of white, the more moisture in the air. Bright white plumes indicate the very moist air associated with thunderstorms occurring in the area.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;direction:ltr;line-height:normal;">change images:

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">The colors help scientists see the changes in change pictures

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Magenta - The magenta areas had more, bigger, or healthier plants and trees recently

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Green - Green areas areas had more or bigger plants and trees before. This shows up a lot in farming areas, where the crops are bigger, or the farmer has a different kind of plant

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Blue - Blue areas show where the city grew. new houses, stores, factories, can see the new building as a blue rectangle!

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">White - These are areas where the Earth's surface is a lot brighter recently. recent clouds show up white in the change image. Another thing that can cause areas of the change image to be white is ground which was burned in the earlier pic

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Black - This is the opposite of white. When farmers make new farmland, they dig up the dirt and turn it over. Dirt can be dark compared to plants, depending what color you are looking at.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Color infrared film is often called "false-color" film. Objects that are normally red appear green, green objects (except vegetation) appear blue, and "infrared" objects, which normally are not seen at all, appear red.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Along track distortion: relief displacement, bend away from center

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Across Track: relief, also tangential scale distortion as sensor turns, moves faster. Skew from rotation of earth also

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">range or across-track resolution - Refers to radar resolution of being able to make out two distinct objects off-nadir based on return pulse time, if dist between is less than 1/2 pulse, seen as identical.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">azimuth or along-track resolution - Refers to spreading of the radar pulse over long distances, if two objects are set apart less than beamwidth at the distance, beamwidth increases over distances, inversely proportional to antenna length

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Slantrange scale distortion occurs because the radar is measuring the distance to features in slant-range rather than the true horizontal distance along the ground. occurs because the radar is measuring the distance to features in slant-range rather than the true horizontal distance along the ground.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Spectral Resolution: of a remote sensing instrument (sensor) is determined by the bandwidths of the electromagnetic radiation of the channels used. High spectral resolution, thus, is achieved by narrow bandwidths width, collectively, are likely to provide a more accurate spectral signature for discrete objects than broad bandwidth.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Radiometric Resolution: is determined by the number of discrete levels into which signals may be divided.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Spatial Resolution: in terms of the geometric properties of the imaging system, is usually described as the instantaneous field of view (IFOV). The IFOV is defined as the maximum angle of view in which a sensor can effectively detect electro-magnetic energy.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Temporal Resolution: is related to the repetitive coverage of the ground by the remote-sensing system. The temporal resolution of Landsat 4/5 is sixteen days (705km). SPOT832 = 26 days.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Space Missions

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Sputnik -1957 (also laika)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Vostok - 1961- Yuri Gagarin(USSR-April) and Alan Shepard(US-May)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Mercury - 1962 - John Glenn orbits

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Gemini - 1965 - first space rendezvous between two manned spacecraft 1965 first orbital space docking on 1966, first american EVA 1965

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Apollo - 1969-1972 - Armstrong, Aldrin, Collins

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Pioneer - test earth's escape velocity + orbit moon, explore outer planets later

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Mariner - explore inner planets, primarily Venus, analyzes atmospheric content

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Viking - 1975 - 2 Mars probes+landers

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Voyager - 1977 - 2 gas planet explorers, now most distant man-made objects, past terminal shock line

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Salyut 1 - 1971 - first space station

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Skylab - 1973- first US space station

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">ISS - 1998

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">first space shuttle - 1981

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">4 major sets of SAR satellites in space monitoring long-term climactic conditions

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">NASA

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">ESA à Earth Remote Sensing Satellites (ERS)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">NSDA (Japan) à Japanese Earth Resources Satellite (JERS-1)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">CSA (Canada) à RADARSAT

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">All sunsynchoronous (remain over areas illuminated by sunlight) and provide frequent passes over artic regions

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Universal Transverse Mercator - Divide into 60 zones of 6 degrees longitude, numbered W to E. Then inside each zone use transverse Mercator projection, simple Cartesian coordinates, very low distortion near center of zones. then measure dist in meters north of equator + S pole ???, then meters east of the baseline (each zone is 1,000,000)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">NASA Remote Sensing TIMELINE

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">April 1, 1960 launch of the Television and Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS 1), proved that satellites can observe Earth's weather patterns

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1966: Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA) I and II gave the United States its first global weather satellite system.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1972: Landsat series with the Earth Resources Technology Satellite 1, later Landsat 1.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1975: The Synchronous Meteorological Satellites (SMS)-A, first spacecraft to observe the Earth from geosynchronous orbit, and SMS-B producied cloud cover pictures every 30 minutes.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1976: Laser Geodynamic Satellite I (LAGEOS 1) provided scientists with the ability to track very precisely the movements of the Earth's surface, earthquakes and other geological activity.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1978: The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission (HCMM) satellite demonstrated the ability to measure variations in the Earth's temperature from space.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1978: Seasat demonstrated techniques for global monitoring of the Earth's oceans, first civil SAR.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1978: Nimbus 7, the final satellite, Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) instrument provided 14 years of data on the Earth's ozone layer. Part of the scientific basis for the Montreal Protocol and other treaties banning the manufacture and use of ozone-depleting chemicals. Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) widely used to study the links between the oceans' biology (plankton), color, temp and the Earth's climate. White areas are high ozone levels, black areas represent low ozone.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> 1984: The Earth Radiation Budget (ERBE) satellite began its study of how the Earth absorbs and reflects the Sun's energy.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> 1991: The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) began its study of the chemistry and physics of the Earth's atmosphere. used to create global maps of ozone-destroying chemicals and to understand the processes related to ozone depletion better. By 1994, UARS' comprehensive data set provided conclusive evidence that human-made chemicals are responsible for the annual Antarctic ozone depletion.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> 1992: Data from the U.S.-French TOPEX/Poseidon satellite began to detail the links between the Earth's ocean and climate. By 1994, TOPEX data indicated that the Earth's average global sea level had risen in the two previous years.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> Spring 1992: The first Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS) flew on the Space Shuttle Atlantis, carried fourteen experiments to study chemistry of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the Sun's energy, and the effect of those two elements on ozone levels. Two additional ATLAS payloads were carried on subsequent shuttle missions in 1993 and 1994.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> 1994: The Space Radar Laboratory, which flew on two shuttle missions, demonstrated the uses of a complex radar to study the Earth's surface, with applications in ecology, geology, water-cycle studies, and other areas. Related research released in 1996 shed new light on the Great Wall of China and the geological history of the Nile River.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> 1997: The Sea-viewing Wide-field-of-view sensor, the only sensor onboard the OrbView-2 satellite, was launched into low-Earth orbit from a Pegasus rocket attached to the belly of a modified Lockheed L-1011 aircraft. identifies oceanic "hot spots" of biological activity, measures global phytoplankton biomass, and estimates the rate of oceanic carbon uptake. yield a better understanding of the sources and sinks in the carbon cycle and the processes that shape global climatic and environmental change. Low concentrations of phytoplankton are represented by purple and blue shades, high concentrations are yellow, orange, and red.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> 1997: NASA, along the National Space Development Agency of Japan, launched the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) from the Tanegashima Space Center in Japan. TRMM houses five separate instruments including the first-ever precipitation radar to fly in space. Designed to help our understanding of the role that the water cycle plays in the current climate system, rainfall and the associated heat released during the condensation-precipitation process in the tropics and sub-tropics.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> 1999: Landsat 7—launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base. Scientists use the Landsat satellites to gather remotely-sensed images of the land surface and surrounding coastal regions for global change research, regional environmental change studies.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> 1999: The QuikSCAT satellite was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base atop a U.S. Air Force Titan II launch vehicle. QuikSCAT houses a scatterometer called SeaWinds that is being used to acquire all-weather, high-resolution measurements of near-surface winds over the Earth's oceans. the mechanisms of global climate change and weather patterns.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Beginning in late 1999, NASA will launch the Terra satellite (formerly EOS AM-1 ), the flagship of the Earth Observing System (EOS)—a series of spacecraft that represent the next landmark steps in NASA's leadership role to observe the Earth from the unique vantage point of space. Focused on key measurements identified by a consensus of U.S. and international scientists, Terra will enable new research into the ways that Earth's lands, oceans, air, ice, and life function as a total environmental system. Has Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer, Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer, Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, Cloud and Radiant Energy System

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">2002: Aqua (EO-1) launched, contains Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (clouds+aerosol), Advanced Land Imager, and Hyperion Hyperspectral Imager, Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System (clouds + oceans), Advanced Infrared Sounder(temp+humid), 2 CERES Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (radiative energy), Humidity Sounder for Brazil

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">2004: Aura (EOS CH1)- atmos chem + infrared emissions: high rez dynamic Limb sounder, trace gases Microwave limb sounder, Ozone monitoring instrument, Tropopheric Emissions Spectrometer (O3, CO2, NO2)

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;"> Marine Observation Satellite - four-channel Multispectral Electronic Self-Scanning Radiometer (MESSR),

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">a four-channel Visible and Thermal Infrared Radiometer (VTIR), and a two-channel

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Microwave Scanning Radiometer (MSR), in the microwave portion of the spectrum.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">SeaWiFS (Sea-viewing Wide-Field-of View Sensor) SeaStar spacecraft ocean primary production and phytoplankton processes, ocean influences on climate processes (heat storage and aerosol

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;direction:ltr;line-height:normal;">formation), and monitoring of the cycles of carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Far-Infrared >15um, long wavelength Infrared 8-15 um, Mid wavelenngth 2-8um, Short Wavelength 1.5-3 um, near infrared 0.7-1.5 um

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Red 610-700 um, Orange 590-610 um, Yellow 570-590 um, Green 500-570 um, Blue 450-500 um, Violet 380-450 um.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Longwave, Radio, Microwave, Infrared, Visible, Ultraviolet, X-ray, Gamma ray

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Plant Growth:

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- needs nitrogen, phosphorus

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">- phosphorus cycle: phosphorus is in rocks, erosion releases P into the environment, which plants can absorb, animals consume plants, get P, animal waste and decomposition flow into sea floor, goes into sediments, which is pushed into phosphate rock into mountains, and back into the environment millions of years later

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Harmful effects of deforestation:

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">1. Desiccation of previously moist forest soil, the soil gets baked and the lack of canopy

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">2. Dramatic Increase in Temperature Extremes : Trees provide shade and the shaded area moderates temp. w/ shade, 98 degrees Farenheit during day and 60 degrees at night. W/o shade, temps would be much colder during the night and around 130 degrees during the day.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">3. Moist Humid Region Changes to Desert : related to desiccation. primarily because of the lack of moisture and the inability to keep moisture, soil that is exposed to the sun will dry and turn into desert sand. Even before that happens, when the soil becomes dry, dust storms become more frequent. At that point, the soil becomes useless. how fast deserts are expanding is controversial. According to UNEP, between 1958 and 1975, the Saharen Desert expanded southward by about 100km. In 1980 UNEP estimated that desertification threatened 35 per cent of the world's land surface and 20 per cent of the world's population.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">4. No Recycling of Water

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">Moisture from the oceans fall as rain on adjacent coastal regions. The moisture is soon sent up to the atmosphere through the transpiration of foliage to fall again on inland forest areas. This cycle repeats several times to rain on all forest regions.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">5. Less Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen Exchange

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">The rainforests are, in the CO2 exchange process, second only to oceans as the most important "sink" for atmos CO2. deforestation may account for as much as 10% of current greenhouse gas emissions.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">6. Soil Erosion

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">The relationship between deforestation and soil erosion. Deforestation is known to contribute to run-off of rainfall and intensified soil erosion. The seriousness of the problem depends much on soil characteristics and topography.

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">7. Other Effects

<p style="color:rgb(0,0,0);font-size:10pt;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;font-family:Verdana;padding-top:0pt;direction:ltr;padding-bottom:0pt;line-height:normal;">clean air and clean water, perhaps the two most important. many aesthetic, recreational and cultural rewards. rainforests are destroyed -> these rewards dissappear.